How to Find the Aries Constellation

How to Find the Aries Constellation The Aries constellation, one of the oldest-known star patterns, is located right next to the constellation Taurus. Discover how to find Aries and its fascinating deep-sky objects during your next sky-gazing session. Finding Aries Aries is most visible in the month of November. To find Aries, look for a crooked line of three bright stars not too far from the Pleiades star cluster. The stars of Aries lie along the zodiac, the path the Sun and planets appear to follow across the sky during the year. The stars of Aries, plus a galaxy challenge. Carolyn Collins Petersen   History of Aries The name Aries is the Latin word for ram. In the constellation Aries, two stars make up the points of a rams horn. However, this constellation has had a wide range of different interpretations throughout history. The sky pattern was associated with a farmhand in ancient Babylon, a porpoise in the South Pacific, a pair of bureaucrats there in ancient China, and the god Amon-Ra in ancient Egypt. Aries and Meteor Showers Avid skywatchers know Aries from the meteor showers that bear its name and appear to radiate from the constellation at different times throughout the year, including: Delta Arietids (between December 8 and January 2)Autumn Arietids (between September 7 and October 27)Epsilon Arietids (between October 12 and 23)Daytime Arietids (between May 22 and July 2) All of these outbursts of meteors are associated with the material left behind by comets as they make their way around the Sun. Earths orbit intersects the comets paths, and as a result they appear to flow from the constellation Aries.   The official IAU constellation chart for Aries. IAU/Sky Publishing   The Stars of Aries The three brightest stars of Aries constellation are officially called alpha, beta, and gamma Arietis. Their nicknames are Hamal, Sharatan, and Mesarthim, respectively. Hamal is an orange giant star and lies about 66 light-years from Earth. Its about 91 times brighter than our Sun and is around 3.5 billion years old.   Sharatan is a fairly young star, slightly  more massive than the Sun and about a third brighter than our star. It lies nearly 60 light-years away from us. It also has a companion star that is much dimmer and orbits at a distance that still hasnt been determined.   Mesarthim is also a binary star and lies about 165 light-years away from the Sun. There other, fainter stars in Aries, too. For example, 53 Arietis is a runaway star that was violently ejected from the Orion Nebula (at the heart of the constellation Orion) in its youth. Astronomers suspect that a nearby supernova explosion sent this star on its way across space. Aries also has a few stars that are orbited by extrasolar planets.   Deep-sky Objects in Aries Aries contains several deep-sky objects that can be discovered through binoculars or a small telescope. The spiral galaxy NGC 772 in Aries. Adam Block/Mount Lemmon Skycenter/University of Arizona. CC-BY-SA 3.0   Perhaps the most interesting is the spiral galaxy NGC 772, which lies south of Mesarthim, and its companion galaxy, NGC 770. Astronomers refer to NGC 772 as a peculiar galaxy because it appears to have some structures not always seen in regular spiral galaxies. Its a star-forming galaxy and lies about 130 million light-years away.  Its very likely that its interesting shape (with one very bright blue arm prominently displayed) is due to an interaction with its companion. A few other very distant and dim galaxies are scattered throughout Aries, including NGC 821 and Segue 2, which is actually a companion galaxy to the Milky Way.

Hamlet Summary, Act-by-Act

Hamlet Summary, Act-by-Act William Shakespeare’s play Hamlet takes place in Elsinore, Denmark after the death of King Hamlet. The tragedy tells the story of Prince Hamlets moral struggle after his father’s ghost tells him that Claudius, Prince Hamlets uncle, murdered the king. Act I The play begins on a cold night with the changing of the guard. King Hamlet has died, and his brother Claudius has taken the throne. However, for the past two nights, the guards (Francisco and Bernardo) have seen a restless ghost resembling the old king wandering the castle grounds. They inform Hamlet’s friend Horatio of what theyve seen. The next morning, the wedding of Claudius and Gertrude, the wife of the late king, takes place. When the room clears, Hamlet soliloquizes on his disgust at their union, which he views as a betrayal of his father at best and, at worst, incest. Horatio and the guards enter and tell Hamlet to meet the ghost that night. Meanwhile, Laertes, the son of the kings advisor Polonius, is getting ready for school. He says goodbye to his sister Ophelia, who is romantically interested in Hamlet. Polonius enters and lectures Laertes extensively on how to behave at school. Both father and son then warn Ophelia about Hamlet; in response, Ophelia promises to no longer see him. That night, Hamlet meets the ghost, who claims to be the ghost of the king- Hamlets father. The ghost says that he was murdered by Claudius, that Claudius put poison in his ear while he slept, and that Gertrude slept with Claudius even before his death. The ghost orders Hamlet to avenge the murder, but not to punish his mother. Hamlet agrees. Later, he informs Horatio and Marcellus, one of the guards, that he will pretend to be mad until he can get his revenge. Act II Polonius sends a spy, Reynaldo, to France to keep an eye on Laertes. Ophelia enters and tells Polonius that Hamlet entered her room in a mad state, grabbing her wrists and staring wildly into her eyes. She also adds that she has cut off all contact with Hamlet. Polonius, certain that Hamlet is madly in love with Ophelia and that it was Ophelias rejection that put him in this state, decides to meet the king to concoct a plan to spy on Hamlet in conversation with Ophelia. Meanwhile, Gertrude has asked Hamlet’s school friends Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to try to figure out the cause of his madness. Hamlet is suspicious of them, and he evades their questions. Soon, a theatre troupe arrives, and Hamlet requests that the following night they perform a certain play, The Murder of Gonzago, with a few passages inserted written by Hamlet. Alone on stage, Hamlet voices his frustration about his own indecisiveness. He decides he must figure out if the ghost is truly his father or if it is a specter leading him to sin without reason. Because the play depicts of a king who kills his brother and marries his sister-in-law, Hamlet believes that the performance scheduled for the next night will make Claudius show his guilt. Act III Polonius and Claudius spy on Hamlet and Ophelia as she returns the gifts he gave her. They become confused when Hamlet spurns her, telling her to go to a nunnery. Claudius concludes that the cause of Hamlets madness is not his love for Ophelia, and decides that he should send Hamlet away to England, unless Gertrude can figure out the true cause. During the performance of The Murder of Gonzago, Claudius stops the action just after the scene in which poison is poured into the kings ear. Hamlet tells Horatio he is now certain that Claudius murdered his father. In the next scene, Claudius attempts to pray in church, but his guilt prevents him from doing so. Hamlet enters and readies himself to kill Claudius, but stops when he realizes that Claudius might go to heaven if he is killed while praying. Gertrude and Hamlet have a bitter fight in her bedchamber. When Hamlet hears a noise behind the tapestry, he stabs the intruder: it is Polonius, who dies. The ghost appears again, rebuking Hamlet for his harsh words against his mother. Gertrude, who cannot see the ghost, becomes certain that Hamlet is mad. Hamlet drags Polonius’s body offstage. Act IV Hamlet jokes with Claudius about killing Polonius; Claudius, fearing for his own life, orders Rosencrantz and Guildenstern to bring Hamlet to England. Claudius has prepared letters telling the English king to kill Hamlet when he arrives. Gertrude is told that Ophelia has gone mad with the news of her father’s death. Ophelia enters, sings a number of strange songs, and speaks of her father’s death, insinuating that her brother Laertes will get revenge. Soon, Laertes enters and demands Polonius. When Claudius tells Laertes that Polonius he is dead, Ophelia enters with a bundle of flowers, each one symbolic. Laertes, upset by his sister’s state, promises to listen to Claudius’s explanation. A messenger approaches Horatio with a letter from Hamlet. The letter explains that Hamlet snuck onto a pirate vessel that attacked them; after they parted, the pirates mercifully agreed to take him back to Denmark in return for some favors. Meanwhile, Claudius has convinced Laertes to join him against Hamlet. A messenger arrives with a letter for Claudius from Hamlet, announcing his return. Quickly, Claudius and Laertes plot how to kill Hamlet without upsetting Gertrude or the people of Denmark, with whom Hamlet is popular. The two men agree to arrange a duel. Laertes acquires a poison blade, and Claudius plans to give Hamlet a poisoned goblet. Gertrude then enters with news that Ophelia has drowned, reigniting Laertes’s anger. Act V While digging Ophelia’s grave, two gravediggers discuss her apparent suicide. Hamlet and Horatio enter, and a gravedigger introduces him to a skull: Yorick, the old king’s jester whom Hamlet loved. Hamlet considers the nature of death. The funeral procession interrupts Hamlet; Claudius, Gertrude, and Laertes are among the entourage. Laertes jumps into his sister’s grave and demands to be buried alive. Hamlet reveals himself and brawls with Laertes, exclaiming that he loved Ophelia more than forty thousand brothers could. After Hamlet’s exit, Claudius reminds Laertes of their plan to kill Hamlet. Hamlet explains to Horatio that he read Rosencrantz and Guildenstern’s letters, rewrote one demanding the beheading of his former friends, and swapped the letters before escaping on the pirate ship. Osric, a courtier, interrupts with news of Laertes’s duel. At the court, Laertes takes up the poisoned blade. After the first point, Hamlet refuses the poisoned drink from Claudius, from which Gertrude then takes a sip. While Hamlet is unguarded, Laertes wounds him; they grapple and Hamlet wounds Laertes with his own poisoned blade. Just then, Gertrude collapses, exclaiming she has been poisoned. Laertes confesses the plan he shared with Claudius, and Hamlet wounds Claudius with the poisoned blade, killing him. Laertes asks for Hamlet’s forgiveness, and dies. Hamlet asks Horatio to explain his story and declares Fortinbras the next king of Denmark, then dies. Fortinbras enters, and Horatio promises to tell the story of Hamlet. Fortinbras agrees to hear it, declaring that Hamlet will be buried as a soldier.

Milk Pasteurization Unit Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 4500 words

Milk Pasteurization Unit - Research Proposal Example UHT treated milk is beyond the reach of ordinary consumers due to exorbitant prices charged by the UHT milk producers. Additionally, UHT treated milk is heated up to 135'C, due to which all the lactobacillus in milk are killed: this has a perverse effect on the milk in that, once contaminated; it spoils much more rapidly than pasteurized milk which caused increased wastage of milk. Most importantly, however, Milk dairy is an economically and financially viable project in the Pakistani market. According to Remy Montavon, in his book "Nestle in Pakistan", Pakistanis have been big milk drinkers with a per capita milk consumption of 200 kg per capita in 2004. Therefore, we believe that setting up a milk-pasteurization unit would be a viable and profitable option, as the consumption of milk is enormous in the Pakistani market, and all the customers in the milk market want to consume high quality and hygienic milk at reasonable prices. The project would be a small scale milk pasteurization unit with facilities for plastic pouch packaging. Our intended dairy unit would constitute a 3000 litres milk intake capacity per hour which is a distinctly economical size for setting up a milk processing business. However, due to the time required for installation and running of the unit, it is expected that the plant would achieve 100 percent efficiency in the 2nd / 3rd year of operations. Horizontal growth in the market is initially considered the next step in the project, as the demand for milk is expected to rise with time; increasing capacity or increased number of pasteurization units are considered the immediate growth steps. However, horizontal or vertical integration are not ruled out, and all favorable partnership and/or merger deals shall be given due consideration. INDUSRTY ANALYSIS The demand for processed milk industry depends on these factors: GDP growth and increase in per capita income. Population. Degree of Rural-Urban Migration. Degree of dissatisfaction with local milk men or gowallas During the last three years, Pakistan's economy has witnessed an average real GDP growth rate of almost 7.5 percent (See Exhibit 1 for real GDP growth rate). This had made Pakistan one of the fastest growing economies in the Asian region. This massive growth is backed by massive progress in the industrial and agricultural sector. Moreover, there has been this emergence of a new investment cycle with investment rate reaching new height at 20.0 percent of GDP. Thus time is ripe for investing in the country. GDP shows the total purchasing power of consumers. The higher the GDP, the greater would be the demand of goods and services; thus a greater demand for pasteurized milk that our company would be producing. Furthermore, the per capita income of the people in Pakistan has undergone a 13.6 percent increase (See Exhibit 2). This has led to an increase in the spending of the people. A factor which may hamper consumer spending in light of increasing GDP Growth is inflation. Inflation pres ented an increasing trend during the fiscal year 2004-05 and reached a high of 11.1 percent April 2005. However the state

Predatory Lending Practices Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Predatory Lending Practices - Essay Example When lenders began offering loans to deprived borrowers with low or bad credit standing, sub-prime loans were priced higher to compensate for the risk. Regardless of the a client's personal credit history, these finance companies offer the chance and allowance of refinancing or new mortgage that overwhelms he borrower with high fees and expensive often unhelpful terms. Minority borrowers composed of hard working people and low-wealth are the usual of consumers availing this type of loan to obtain financing. Availability of fair credit terms should be a major priority for responsible lenders as people no matter what the noted deficiencies are members of a civilized society with moral rights to uphold regardless of condition of credit orientation. However, seemingly cognizant of the needs of this minority sector, financing institutions have blossomed giving effect to what has been observed as a tragic loophole in Federal reserves that charges people with exorbitant interests and penalt ies. When the growth in equity lending has created risk management practices in response to financial institutions with equity lending programs, financial institutions' credit risk management practices for home equity lending have not kept pace with the product's rapid growth and easing of underwriting standards. We have seen numerous fore-closures on home properties in the past years that would eventually reflect in an economic meltdown. Further studies revealed predatory practices of lending institutions as the culprit in this scenario that charged exorbitant and often unnecessary fees and interests into the gross amounts that may no longer be viable for a medium to low wage earning homeowner. How can management eliminate the negative symptoms How can management fully capitalize on an opportunity Risk Management standards would create a favorable scenario over the increased lending with favorable tax treatments that may allow home equity loans and lines attractive to its consumers that offers a modest repayment schemes and relaxed structures that was currently devoid in its system. Institutions should capitalize on the rise on home values coupled with lower interest rates that make a product more attractive yet attainable and helpful to its user. The identification of certain risk factors in the system of practices in a financial lending institutions helps to identify the culprits that serves to practice certain features that offer an "interest-only" amortization that requires no principal amount applied. Documentation or its absence provides no room for evaluative measures and appraisals within the healthy structure. Risk management systems call for lending measures conducted in a safe and sound manner pursued with adequate allowances for loan losses and appropriate capital levels without negating sound practices in the accepted lending policies. Management principles actively assess the changes in the consumer's ability to pay and the potential decline of a home value and entertain this scenario without generating allowances that charge exorbitant fees disabling the capacity of the borrower from paying his dues and eventually leading to the

The many hardships of society Essay Example for Free

The many hardships of society Essay Victor does not show love and domestic affection to the creature after he has given it life he just abandons it without some one to look after it and care for it as Victors family has done. Unable to endure the aspect of the being I had created I rushed out of the room and continued along time traversing my bedchamber. Victor does not show any love for the creature he has created. He is unable to endure this gives the reader the image that the creature has become so ugly. Even though he has collected the body parts from beautiful people the creature is still hideous. This shows a complete lack of love and domestic affection that has been shown to Victor in abundance by his parents. Victors parents show that there is a strong family bond between them and their son. I was there playing their idol, and something better than their child, the innocent and helpless creature bestowed on them by heaven. In this paragraph Victor describes himself as their plaything their idol. Him and his parents are inseparable and they looked up to Victor although he is a small child. They wanted him to be safe and happy. Victor is also described as small and innocent helpless creature. Victor does not show the same affection for the creature. I beheld the wretch- the miserable monster whom I created. Victor describes the creature as a wretch, this shows that Victor as a young child was shown love and affection but he is now incapable of showing the same love that was shown to him by his parent to the creature the baby that he has created. These adjectives describe the monster as physically ugly this is one of the reasons why victor rejects him, because he wanted to make a beautiful creature. Victor is also described as helpless and innocent and that he cannot fend for himself and he needs an older figure to be responsible for his actions and to keep him safe. Victor abandons the creature as soon as he realizes that he has made a mistake in trying to play god. But what has he abandoned he has abandoned a young inexperience, defenseless, innocent helpless creature. So again we see Victor being shown great love and domestic affection by his family. But when he grows up he is unable to show the same love and domestic affection towards the creature. Victor is brought up in a protective bubble when he is younger. I was so guided by a silken cord that all seemed but one train of enjoyment for me. Using the word silken cord refers to the umbilical cord that gives the entire growing child what it needs to survive. This is directly linked to Victor parents and the fact that they are providing him with so much love and domestic affection that he does not have to do anything he does not have to fend for himself. This Silken cord of tender love and affection is not there when the creature is brought to life. He has to learn to find his own way because he is an outcast of society so he would find it hard to fit in. He is on his own because victor has not got the mental strength to own up and shows this creation to the rest of the world. He also does not want to show any affection or love to this creature because he finds it physically repulsive. Victor is shown the way by his Parents they are always making decisions for him even as a young adult. When I was seventeen my parents resolved that I should become a student at he university of Inglostadt. He still has a protective bubble around him even though he is seventeen. This shows that his parents are still making choices for him that can provide him happiness or sorrow in the years to come. The creature is deprived of this from victor this is shown, as he does not know about the dangers of fire. The creature is attracted to the warmth of the fire and it is like the tender warm love that he is not receiving. I thrust my hand into the live embers but draw it quickly out again crying in pain. The creature has had no guidance from victor or anybody of higher intelligence than himself. This is why he burns his hand on the fire. If victor was about to do that either his Mother or Father would have stopped him from burning himself because they want to protecting him so he does not get harmed mentally or Physically. The creature then goes off in search of another family or someone who can nurture him properly. He finds a village he is curious to see this type pf village with cottages, which he has never seen before. Shortly after entering the village he is confronted by a mob throwing stones and various items at him. The creature is amazed at how polite and loving the people he is observing are. There gentle manners and beauty of these cottagers greatly endured me. He means that he is amazed that even though they are so poor they are still happy and show great love and affection for each other and he wants to become apart of that family. He observes the family and notices a new addition to the family called safie she is from a distant country. This gives the creature hope that maybe he may be able to be accepted into the family as safie is an outsider and she has been accepted. The creature then finds out how ugly he is and starts to doubt his reasons for being in the world. I had admired the perfect form of my cottagers- their grace, beauty, and delicate complexions; but how was I terrified when I viewed myself in a transparent pool! At first I stared back, unable to believe that indeed I who was reflected in the mirror; and when I became fully convinced that I was in reality the monster that I am. He realizes that he is a monster and that he would never fit in if he wanted to have a family that loved him and nurtured him. He starts to realize that this is the end for his hopes of a normal life. The creature tries to be accepted into the family by speaking to the blind man, the blind man is oblivious to any faults the creature may have. Agatha fainted, and safie unable to attend his friend rushed out of the cottage. Felix darted forward and with a supernatural force tore me from his father, to whose knees I clung; in a transport of fury, he dashed me to the ground with a stick . I could have torn him limb form limb, as a lion rends the antelope. He now realizes that all hope is lost of ever finding a family that will love him and show him domestic affection and so wallows in self pity. He then burns down the delaceys house at it is a symbol of a nice warm family that he is not apart of so he destroys it. Show preview only The above preview is unformatted text This student written piece of work is one of many that can be found in our GCSE Mary Shelley section.

Reduction in Force :: essays research papers

The Role of Length of Service in a Reduction in Force Organizations participating in a reduction in force (RIF) are typically reacting to an economic reason. A poorly designed and executed RIF procedure is fraught with potential litigation possibilities. Using â€Å"†¦length of service with the company or in a job classification is the most common, easiest, and most objective standard† (Wildman-Harrold).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Any RIF is subject to potential lawsuits. Considering the number of employees involved, the amount of potential damages can easily escalate. Consequently, RIF decisions need to be consistent, uniformly applied, and based on objective measures.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Using seniority has several advantages. It is a quantifiable measurement that is readily understood and appreciated by employees. Using Seniority can also aid in the positive perception that employees have in their organization by valuing loyalty. Seniority can also reduce the liability that comes with age discrimination. One survey indicated that age discrimination claims are twice as frequent as any other claim in a RIF. (Wildman-Harrold)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  While using seniority as a RIF measurement tool has distinct advantages, companies that use seniority as the sole measurement tool for a RIF put themselves at a disadvantage. These companies are potentially at risk for not retaining productive and high performing, less senior employees. Companies that create a hybrid of measurements that include skill set analysis and performance based measurements, along with seniority will be better served. Considerations of Gender, Race, Age, and Other â€Å"Protected Class† Designations State and Federal laws protect employees from unlawful termination based on gender, race, and age. It is estimated from the â€Å"Displaced Worker Survey† that over 2.4% of all employees displaced in the mid 1990’s filed a discrimination claim with the EEOC (Harriet Zellner, 1998, p.1). Understanding this large potential risk, employers must be cognizant of the effect that any RIF will have as it relates to this protected class. To understand the potential implication of a RIF on the employer’s protected class, the employer should conduct â€Å"statistical pre-testing of RIF lists† (Harriet Zellner, 1998, p.1). In this process the employer would conduct a mock RIF to develop lists of employees both before and after the RIF. These lists would provide the statistical data for the workforce composition, from which a statistical analysis of patterns in the data are completed. From this data, the organization must make an assessment whether the statistics represent a disparate impact on a protected class. If a disparate impact exists, the organization needs to determine if the impact is statistically significant, is the RIF process fair, impartial, and caused by a business need?

Noise Induced Hearing Loss Health And Social Care Essay

Hearing is a particular sense like no other and indispensable to the communications between world. A loss of this esthesis has profound effects and tends to insulate the individual enduring from it. One of the prima causes of hearing loss which is unluckily mostly preventable is an exposure to resound. Worldwide, about 16 % of disenabling hearing loss in grownups is attributed to occupational noise [ 1 ] . This decrease in hearing sharp-sightedness associated with noise exposure is referred to as Noise induced hearing loss ( NIHL ) . NIHLis progressively going one of the most common hearing upset encountered by Ent mans of this epoch. Excessive noise in the environment has far making consequence on the hearing sharp-sightedness of a big population. Rapid industrialisation and urbanisation has resulted in perilously noisy environment impacting the wellness of 1000000s of people throughout the universe. Hearing loss due to inordinate noise is non limited to work topographic point but h as become all permeant and is quickly developing into a planetary public wellness job of great magnitude impacting the universe population irrespective of age, gender, cultural group or nationality. Though developed states are easy conveying noise pollution under control, in developing states industrial and urban societal noise degrees are quickly increasing due to rapid industrialisation, burgeoning vehicular population, usage of amplifiers for advertisement, a broad scope of societal and recreational noise and deficiency of statute law or hapless execution of Torahs. We are presently harvesting the crop of this unwanted addition in noise that is taking to an epidemic of hearing loss [ 2 ] . What is peculiarly baleful about NIHL is that it develops without the individual affected being cognizant of the fact that his hearing has been damaged. By the clip this hearing loss is diagnosed, irreversible harm to the hearing mechanism would hold constantly occurred and this remains to be the most of import practical job associated with noise [ 3 ] . Armed forces forces are at great hazard of developing NIHL. Exposure to fire weaponries, heavy weapon guns, armoured vehicular noise in the ground forces, engine room noise and other noises on board ships, aircraft related noises in the Air Force are some of the grounds why NIHL is a major wellness job in the Armed forces. Noise has physical physiological and psychological intensions. Physically it is complex sound without any cyclicity and its features can non be analysed. Physiologically noise is a signal that bears no information and its strength varies indiscriminately. Psychologically noise is an unpleasant and unwanted sound. The temporal form of environmental noise can be uninterrupted ( steady province ) , fluctuating, unprompted or intermittent. The strength of noise is measured in sound force per unit area degrees ( SPL ) and is expressed in dBs ( dubnium ) . Spectral form of frequence of a noise is measured in Hertz ( Hz ) . This subdivision attempts to supply an overview of effects of noise on hearing, the pathophysiology of NIHL, early sensing and bar of NIHL and legal and societal and issues in relation to NIHL. Historical position The consciousness that loud noise produces hearing loss has been recognized for 100s of old ages. Even in the Bronze Age hearing loss is said to hold existed due to the whipping and pound of Fe and bronze [ 4 ] . Some of the ancient Greeks disliked noise and about 600BC Voluptuaries forbade metal work affecting pound of metals within metropolis bounds [ 3 ] . However the earliest bing mention to the effects of noise on hearing appears to be an observation recorded in the first century AD by Pliny, the senior in his Natural history when he noted that those who dwell near the cataracts ( rapids ) of Nile were stricken deaf [ 5 ] . In 1713, Ramazzini found hearing loss in coppersmiths who hammered Cu for their life. He besides recommended the usage of hearing defenders to forestall hearing loss. NIHL became a bigger job with the find of gun pulverization and the job got further compounded with industrial revolution. NIHL was recognized in United States, Germany and England in 1870s and 1880s. Thomas Barr likely conducted the first epidemiological study of NIHL in 1886 [ 6 ] . He undertook a comprehensive study of hearing loss in boilermakers, Fe laminitiss and mailmans. He made sound recordings and established the survey of occupational hearing loss on a sound scientific footing. This survey has stood the trial of times as an excellent, good conceived and executed survey on occupational hearing loss. In 1890 Habermann described the histology of NIHL in organ of Corti [ 7 ] . Fowler in 1928 observed the typical dip at 4 KHz due to NIHL [ 8 ] and Bunch in 1939 published the first audiometric characteristic of NIHL showing the typical high frequence SNHL [ 9 ] . Immense technological progresss during the 2nd World War, more efficient but noisy machinery and rapid industrialisation lead to NIHL going a planetary job. More late the coming of amplified music, motorized conveyance, societal and community noise is presenting a upseting job of increasing NIHL [ 10, 11 ] . Though NIHL has been recognized for centuries, its rating, research into its pathophysiology, and bar schemes has acquired importance late.Consequence of noise on adult maleDepending upon the strength of sound and continuance of exposure, either reversible or lasting interior ear harm can happen. The effects of noise on adult male can be audile or non-auditory. The audile effects of noise on human ear are: ( a ) Auditory version ( B ) Noise induced impermanent threshold displacement ( NITTS ) ( degree Celsius ) Noise induced lasting threshold displacement ( NIPTS ) ( vitamin D ) Acoustic injury Non-auditory effects of noise include: ( a ) Intervention with communicating ( B ) Intervention with efficiency and work end product ( degree Celsius ) Psychological effects like crossness and irritation ( vitamin D ) Perturbation to kip, rest thereby lending to tire ( vitamin E ) Hypertension, peptic ulcer and other systemic unwellnesssAdaptationAuditory version is an immediate phenomenon that occurs when a sound is presented to the ear slightly promoting the threshold. For tiring sounds up to 80 dubnium SPL, the greatest version is produced for an indistinguishable frequence. The sum of residuary cover that remains after the surcease of stimulation is relative to the strength of the sound but is non dependent on the continuance of exposure [ 2 ] . This is physiological phenomenon and for sounds up to 70 dubniums SPL recovery occurs in less than half a 2nd. The sound strength at which there is a crossing over from version to impermanent threshold displacement ( TTS ) is variable depending on the frequence, being higher in lower frequences and lower in higher frequences. The phenomenon of version correlatives with the decrease of action possible [ 12 ] .Noise Induced Temporary Threshold Shift ( NITTS )This is a short-run lift of hearing threshold that may follow exposure to loud sounds. Here, the lift of hearing threshold is reversible. TTS is a short-run consequence measured in proceedingss and yearss. The sum of TTS is straight relative to the strength of sound and continuance of exposure. Tones of higher frequence produce more TTS than tones of lower frequences [ 11 ] . TTS is normally associated with other auditory symptoms like tinnitus, loudness enlisting and diplacusis. TTS of more than 40 dubnium is frequently associated with some lasting harm to hair cells and some grade of lasting threshold displacement ( PTS ) occurs. TTS can besides follow exposure to both steady province noise and impulse noise. The relationship between TTS and PTS has been much investigated but the relationship remains ill-defined.Noise Induced Permanent Threshold Shift ( NIPTS )This is defined as lasting lift of hearing threshold due to exposure to inordinate noise. NIPTS is a consequence of chronic exposure to reasonably intense noise in con trast to acoustic injury that is due to a individual, short-run exposure to a really high strength sound. The mechanism of hurt to inner ear due to chronic noise exposure and acoustic injury are really different though both consequence in harm to cochlea and its hair cells.Acoustic TraumaThis is a status when there is a sudden harm to the ear due to intense short-run exposure or even a individual exposure to a really high strength noise. This normally occurs from pyrotechnics, little weaponries fire, gunshot and detonations. This non merely consequences in some harm to the interior ear but besides can damage the tympanic membrane and ear bonelets in contrast to chronic NIHL where there is insidious devastation of organ of Corti peculiarly the outer hair cells ( OHCs ) and interior hair cells ( IHCs ) taking to lasting hearing loss [ 13 ] . The mechanism of hurt in acoustic injury appears to be strictly mechanical ab initio, followed by secondary devolution. After exposure to highly intense noise, histological alterations from mild swelling or writhing of OHCs to pycnosis of their karyons to finish absence of organ of Corti and rupture of Reissner ‘s membrane have been noticed. Secondary devolution of ganglionic cells and nervus fibers will be noticed after several hebdomads [ 14 ] . Immediate traumatic alterations in acoustic injury can be interpreted as the consequence of an interaction between the kinetic energy of sound and mechanical belongingss of cochlear constructions. Secondary alterations may so be due to degenerative and mending procedure [ 15 ] .NOISE INDUCED HEARING LOSS ( NIHL )NIHL is the most common and most of import consequence of noise pollution.Pathophysiology of NIHLExcessive sound degrees beyond critical degrees produce a hostile acoustic environment and with drawn-out chronic exposure, harm to the cochlea occurs and produces NIHL. Permanent NIHL is a distinguishable pathological province exhibiting a recognizable set of symptoms and nonsubjective marks. Specific characteristics of NIHL include: ( a ) Permanent sensorineural hearing loss with harm preponderantly to outer hair cells ( OHCs ) . ( B ) History of long term exposure to unsafe noise degrees ( & gt ; 85 dubnium for 8 hours per twenty-four hours ) ( degree Celsius ) Gradual loss of hearing over 5-10 old ages of exposure ( vitamin D ) Hearing loss ab initio affecting higher frequences 3-8 KHz before affecting frequences below 2 KHz ( vitamin E ) Speech acknowledgment tonss consistent with audiometric form ( degree Fahrenheit ) Hearing stabilizes one time the noise exposure is terminated. The cochlear hair cells are the primary site of harm due to inordinate noise exposure. OHCs are most affected in the initial phases. Research in the yesteryear focused on mechanism of hurt and anatomical correlativity. Initial surveies were anatomical surveies based on the scheme of exposing animate beings to loud sounds followed by general histopathological correlativity of harm to cochlear constructions. Recent surveies have attempted to set up structural and functional correlativity between morphological harm and hearing loss. Newer research utilizing electron microscopy and survey of ultrastructural alterations to hair cells have led to better apprehension of the harm and mechanisms of harm. A figure of mechanisms have been suggested for NIPTS. Some of the theories of harm to inner ear in NIPTS are: ( a ) Mechanical harm caused by terrible gesture of basilar membrane ( B ) Metabolic exhaustion of hair cells ( degree Celsius ) Severe vascular narrowing and ischemia of cochlear microvasculature due to inordinate noise exposure ( vitamin D ) Ionic instability and cellular harm due to break of ionic gradients of cochlear constructions. Hawkynss demonstrated vasoconstriction of cochlear microcirculation after drawn-out exposure to sound and speculate that vasoconstriction of the microcirculation of the basilar membrane and coiling ligament may stand for a direct response to intense mechanical quivers or may be moderated by vasoactive humoral substances [ 16 ] . Although experimental research has non really pinpointed the mechanism of harm, the current most convincing morphological grounds suggests a combination of mechanical and chemical factors [ 13 ] . Ultra structural alterations in the stereocilia of OHCs in the signifier of tattered or broken rootlets are the initial pathological alterations in TTS and PTS [ 17, 18 ] . On go oning exposure a distinct but direct break consequences in the toxic mix up of endolymph and prerilymph through microbreaks in structural model of cochlear canal which cause secondary effects like loss of hair cells and their corresponding nervus fibres [ 19 ] . Both programmed cell death a nd mortification contribute to this cell decease [ 20 ] . The sum and type of direct cell harm depends on the strength of sound. When exposed to certain detrimental strength, the OHCs show marks of metabolic exhaustion with drooping of stereocilia. This correlates with TTS that recovers over a few hours. Higher sound degrees on drawn-out exposure harm the stereocilia farther and this includes devastation of interior ciliary Bridgess. Recovery takes longer and is uncomplete. Further exposure lead to a prostration of stereocilia and eventual decease of OHCs. This corresponds to NIPTS [ 21 ] . Over the last 20 old ages, phenomenal research has occurred in the molecular and biochemical footing for NIHL. This is taking to a possibility of better preventative and healing schemes for NIHL. It appears that oxidative emphasis is a major cause for hair cell harm in NIHL and drug induced ototoxicity. High strength noise produces high degrees of Reactive Oxygen species ( ROS ) , which damage the phospholipids in the hair cell membrane and atomic membrane. It besides increases the intracellular Ca and up regulates the cell decease cistron. This may be prevented or minimized by cut downing the formation of ROS by administrating antioxidants like N-Acetyl Cysteine to heighten the endogenous antioxidant system [ 22 ] . Antioxidants like Glutathione protect the interior ear constructions from the detrimental effects of noise in experimental animate beings [ 23, 24 ] . The oncoming and advancement of NIHL is besides related to feedback from CNS. It is good established that the excitation of OHCs is fundamentally from motorial fibers but their maps were non good understood. It is now known that there is an active feedback system from CNS that may deject the contractile activity of OHCs and thereby cut down the stimulation of matching IHCs. This may sharpen the frequence favoritism and perchance cut down the consequence of low dissembling sound on hair cells and thereby cut down the harm [ 11 ] . Another of import observation that has come to the notice of research workers is the phenomenon of â€Å" conditioning † or â€Å" toughening † of the ear. It is known that pre exposure to low strength sounds â€Å" toughen † or â€Å" status â€Å" the ear and offers protection against subsequent harmful effects of high strength noise. This may be due to up step of production of antioxidants like Glutathione [ 25, 26 ] . This fact has promising application in inventing preventative schemes to cut down NIHL. In adult male the earliest and greatest histological harm due to resound trauma appears at about 10 millimeter from the ellipse window along the cochlear divider. Habermann in 1880 foremost demonstrated the disappearing of the organ of Corti and devastation of hair cells in a 75 old ages old adult male who had worked as a blacksmith. Mcgill and Schuchnecht [ 27 ] , after histopathological scrutiny in 14 ears with NIHL inferred that morphological alterations consist chiefly of hair cell loss that is more terrible in the 9 millimeter to 13 mm part of cochlear canal. They besides found greater loss of OHCs. The country so damaged corresponds to the audiometric frequence of 4 KHz and they concluded that there is a good correlativity between NIPTS and spacial location of centripetal lesion harmonizing to the anatomical graduated table. Clark and Bohne [ 28 ] studied the cochlea of noise-exposed chinchilla and found that the step of auditory map showed that the harm to basal bend of cochle a was associated with NIPTS from one to several higher frequences. However when PTS involved lower frequences, they found moderate loss of OHCs in the apical bend. Some research workers have concluded that in the survey of devolution forms in human ears exposed to resound show devolution form with knife border passage between wholly degenerated and seemingly undamaged countries to be characteristic of NIHL [ 29 ] . The natural advancement of NIHL is a predictable sequence of events with a little part of hair cell and nervus fiber devolution looking in the cochlea matching to 4 KHz notch. This distinct lesion grows bit by bit on farther exposure to sound to affect the greater part of organ of corti in the basal bend of the cochlea. Finally as the noise exposure continues over old ages, the staying sensory and nervous elements in the basal bend of cochlea are destroyed ensuing in an disconnected loss high frequence hearing [ 13 ] .Factors Affecting the Development of NIPTSApart from u nsafe degrees of high strength noise that is chiefly responsible for NIHL there are a big figure of factors that affect the oncoming, advancement and badness of NIHL. The chief factors impacting the development of NIHL are: ( a ) Physical factors- strength, continuance and frequence spectrum of noise. ( B ) Biological factors – Individual susceptibleness, age, sex, familial and societal sensitivity, acoustic physiological reaction, Pneumatisation of mastoids, pre- exposure threshold ( degree Celsius ) Pathological factors – Synergistic effects of drugs and chemicals, other co-existing ear diseases.Intensity of ExposureAmerican Standard National Institute ( ANSI ) reported on a survey of 7000 audiograms of different industrial workers and found that in about 200 instances of NIHL, the hearing loss could be correlated with sound force per unit area degree. Sound force per unit area degree in the frequence set of 300-600 Hz correlated with threshold displacement at 1 Khz and at 1200-2400 Hz the SPL correlated with threshold displacement at 4 KHz [ 30 ] . Most workers have found exponential addition in hearing losingss with increasing strengths and based on these surveies damage hazard standards sing safe degree continuance of exposure have been established.Duration of ExposureThere is good established correlativity between NIHL and continuance of exposure. With an mean work topographic point exposure of 90-94 dubniums everyday over a period 10 old ages, NIHL reaches its maximal and remains changeless thenceforth [ 31 ] [ 37 ] . The hearing loss in the higher frequences will halt progressing but it will distribute bit by bit to lower frequences. The major portion of the hearing loss occurs early in the first 2-3 old ages. In the ulterior old ages the hearing loss is normally contaminated with presbyacusis. When noise degrees ranges between 83 and 116 assumed name with acoustic energy concentrated in higher frequences, the hearing threshold additions in magnitude as a map of exposure durationA [ 32 ] .Individual SusceptibilitySusceptibility to inauspicious effects of noise is capable to tremendous fluctuation from single to single. In a group of people exposed to similar steady province noise over a drawn-out period, harm to hearing shows broad fluctuation. However, so far no individual factor that recognizes the susceptibleness of an person has been identified. It is really of import to develop valid and dependable indices to foretell h uman susceptibleness to NIHL maintaining in head the magnitude of the job. Certain biologic characters unique to the person like stiffness of cochlear divider, thickness of basilar membrane and tectorial membrane, vascularity of cochlea and denseness of hair cells and their excitation may hold great bearing on single susceptibleness to NIHL [ 3 ] . A big figure of potentially of import variables like age, sex, race, efficiency of acoustic physiological reaction, smoking wonts and presence of metabolic upsets like DM, high blood pressure have been investigated. There is no grounds to propose that there is any relationship between age and susceptibleness to NIHL [ 33 ] . The relationship between NIHL and presbyacusis or age related hearing loss is non good understood. However it is assumed that both are linear and in all individuals above the age of 50 old ages with NIHL, a presbyacusis rectification of 0.3 dubniums per twelvemonth for every twelvemonth above 50 old ages may be applie d [ 31 ] . No gender preponderance to NIHL has been identified once and for all.Role of Acoustic ReflexIt is good known that when stapedius musculus, contracts it attenuates the transition of sound into interior ear by 30 dubnium. Variability in fatigability of acoustic physiological reaction may be one of the factors in single susceptibleness to resound injury [ 34 ] . It is besides documented that topics with hapless acoustic physiological reaction recorded a big TTS after exposure to resound. A close correlativity was found between TTS and latency clip of acoustic physiological reaction, its rise clip and its full activation clip [ 35 ] . Acoustic physiological reaction therefore may play an of import function in single susceptibleness to NIHL.Degree of MelaninisationThere is some grounds to propose that melanin may be an of import protective agent against noise. Carter studied the oculus coloring material and NIPTS and found that mean hearing degrees of otologically normal ears were poorer at 4 KHz in individuals with light oculus coloring material than in people with dark colored eyes ( bespeaking a higher melanin pigmentation ) [ 36 ] . Peoples with bluish and light coloured flag may be more susceptible to NIHL. Melanin in striavascularis of cochlea may hold a protective consequence against noise [ 37 ] . Barrenas and Lindgren besides suggested that visible radiation coloured topics were susceptible to greater TTS on exposure to loud noise [ 38 ] .Drugs and ChemicalsMany drugs and chemicals have interactive action with noise in potentiating NIHL. The harm from terrible acoustic exposure is similar in many ways to ototoxicity produced by aminoglycosides. Many research workers have documented that a combination of noise and aminoglycosides is far more traumatic so either agent entirely [ 39, 40 ] . There is besides grounds that extra hearing loss may take topographic point when worlds are treated with acetylsalicylic acid and other non-steroidal anti- infl ammatory drugs and exposed to high strength noise concomitantly [ 41 ] . Coincident exposure to environmental pollutants like C monoxide and noise produced more hearing loss than either agent entirely. A big figure of other chemical pollutants or chemical mediators in industries like methylbenzene, hexa-methyl quicksilver and lead ethanoate are potentially ototoxic agents and can potentially interact synergistically with noise and bring forth NIHL. There has been an increased focal point late on environmental pollutants like metals, organic dissolvers and their interaction with noise in bring forthing increasing hearing loss [ 42 ] . There has been some association between noise and quiver in individuals who work in cold conditions with manus held power tools, particularly, in those who suffer from Raynaud ‘s phenomenon. These people are more prone for increased NIHL.SociacusisIt is non merely occupational and industrial noise that is unsafe to hearing wellness but besides the increasing cumulative effects of societal noise exposure in one ‘s day-to-day life that needs serious consideration. This societal noise exposure has been termed â€Å" Sociacusis † . Noise degrees in mundane life are on the addition. In add-on there are recreational activities that have potentially risky noise degrees. In the urban scene, transit is the chief cause. Cars, trains, planes, bikes and the increasing usage of Diesel engines that are noisier than gasoline engines have all contributed to increasing societal noise. In some of the metropoliss of India this noise has been documented to make a degree up to 90 dubniums [ 43 ] which is clearly risky. A worker who is exposed to sound degrees of 88 dubnium for 8 hours at work, and so exposed to 94 assumed names sounds while transposing to and from work is at hazard of developing NIHL due to linear effects of sound. Vacuum cleaners, liquidizers and lawn mowers all add to the cumulative effects of sound at place. Nois e degrees in public transit can be really high. In some metro systems noise degrees may make really high degrees [ 44 ] . Recreational noise can frequently make risky proportions. Fire crackers can give rise to sudden hearing loss in kids. Motorcycles, snowmobiles and concatenation proverbs result in damaging sound degrees. â€Å" Pop † and â€Å" stone † concerts and discotheques are a beginning of really high strength noise. Personal stereos and Cadmium participants can besides be potentially harmful. Lebo and Oliphant in every bit early as 1968 conducted surveies in Rock concerts and found SPL far transcending the bounds considered safe for drawn-out exposure [ 45 ] . Clark recorded sound degrees in surplus of 100 dubnium in the audience of stone concerts [ 46 ] . Rock concerts produce TTS and tinnitus in most audience. Orchestral instrumentalists can be exposed to damaging sound force per unit area degrees and audiometric alterations consistent with NIHL may often develop [ 47 ] . Though community noise or sociacusis is of lesser magnitude than industrial or occupational noise, a larger population is exposed to it and its linear consequence can be important.Medical NoiseThere may be state of affairss in infirmaries where noise degrees can be risky to hearing wellness of people working in the infirmaries and patients. MRI units may bring forth sound degrees at patients head in surplus of 90 dubnium. These degrees are high plenty to do NIHL [ 48 ] . Surveies have shown that sound degrees produced by drills and suction units during ear surgery are high plenty to bring forth NIHL. Parkins, in 1980 documented that the coincident usage of suction and bore during ear surgery may bring forth sound degrees runing from 91- 108 dubnium [ 49 ] . This may be the cause for displacements in hearing threshold apparent on station op audiograms. DietzerKatzeet Al, Man and Winnerman, and Spencer and Reid have all documented really high noise degrees during mast oid and ear surgery due to the usage of drill and suction with a possible to do NIHL [ 50-52 ] . Kamal in an interesting survey showed early but definite NIHL in 50 % of topics working in orthopedic theater [ 53 ] . The beginning of the noise was identified as plaster proverb and air drills. There are besides studies sing harm to residual hearing by amplified noise in hearing disabled kids fitted with powerful hearing AIDSs [ 54 ] .Noise and Armed forcesNoise and noise induced hearing loss is job of immense magnitude in the Armed forces all over the universe. The forces of the ground forces, navy and the air force are exposed to really high strength noise produced as a consequence of the arms that they use, the mechanical conveyance, aircraft and ships that they use. The nature of their business exposes them to resound degrees that can endanger their hearing. The members of Armed Forces and para-military organisations are exposed to a combination of steady province noise and impulse noise of really high strengths and their unprotected ears are vulnerable to extensive hearing harm. In armed forces, forces functioning in certain subdivisions and trades are more vulnerable. In the ground forces, those functioning in the foot, heavy weapon, armoured corps and corps of applied scientists are at high hazard of developing NIHL. In the air force pilots, air animal trainers and air trade care forces are at high hazard. Similarly in the naval forces, engine room crewmans, gunnery crew, air trade bearer forces, frogmans and submariners are at high hazard of developing NIHL due to the nature of their occupations [ 55 ] . Kessar, in an audiometric study on heavy weapon forces of Indian Armed forces reported that 50.8 % heavy weapon forces had changing grades of NIHL compared to 14.1 % of controls [ 56 ] . In the same survey 86.5 % gunnery crew with more than 10years of service had moderate to severe NIHL. Raiet Al reported that 85.5 % naval gunnery crew evaluated audiometr ically had NIHL [ 57 ] . In another survey noise degrees of 120 dubniums were recorded in the engine suites of naval ships and 78 % of engine room forces were found to hold NIHL of changing grades. Pawa KL, Singh VK and Venkatesh MD reported an extended study of noise degrees on board Indian Naval ships and recorded an norm of 105 dubniums noise degrees in engine suites and besides reported that 70 % of the engine room crewmans evaluated were found to hold NIHL [ 58 ] . The badness of hearing loss increased linearly with length of service. Theyobserved increased exposure of frogmans to audiovestibular disfunction and noise is one the major subscribers to hearing loss in frogmans and submariners. An audiometric study of Indian Air Force forces revealed an overall prevalence of 22.9 % of NIHL [ 59 ] .Clinical characteristics of NIHLClinical characteristics of NIHL are frequently identical from other causes of SNHL. The diagnosing is based on elaborate history, physical scrutiny and ap propriate audiometric rating. It is stressed that the diagnosing of NIHL is circumstantial and would necessitate a careful elaborate occupational history, household history and history sing recreational exposure to resound. From a medicolegal facet guidelines have been defined to help in ‘labeling a instance ‘ as NIHL [ 60 ] . Another facet to maintain in head is that the people who are susceptible to NIHL can besides endure from other otological diseases like CSOM, Meniere ‘s disease, otosclerosis, familial hearing loss etc and therefore all attempts at naming these conditions should be made before imputing the hearing loss to inordinate noise exposure. In a big series of NIHL in Ontario, 5 % of the survey group had other ear diseases as major cause for their hearing loss [ 61 ] . Any history, physical marks or audiometric findings suggestive of cochlear or retro-cochlear hearing loss in a patient will necessitate extended rating to get at a diagnosing. However, w ith a good history, physical scrutiny and a pure tone audiogram, it is possible to get at a diagnosing of NIHL and besides arrive at a decision that the hearing loss is attributable to resound [ 2 ] . NIHL and acoustic injury are constantly associated with tinnitus which is frequently raging. Many patients of chronic NIHL will hold tinnitus as their chief ailment.Audiometric ConfigurationThe 4 KHz notch is frequently considered a typical audiometric characteristic in NIHL regardless of the frequence scope of the noise beginning. However, more frequently than non, the so called 4 KHz notch occurs in the scope of 3-6 KHz. [ 20 ] ( Fig. 10.12 and 10.13 ) . The most plausible account for the 4 KHz notch in pure tone audiogram is the resonance features of ear canal to sounds of different frequences with maximum harm happening one octave above the Centre of frequence scope of the noise. The wide set industrial noise is concentrated at 3 KHz due to peculiar anatomical constellation of EAC and hence maximum harm occurs in 4 KHz country of cochlea. It needs to be kept in head nevertheless that the absence of a notch does non except the diagnosing of NIHL [ 20 ] . Though NIHL is frequently described as bilateral and symmetrical, asymmetrical hearing losingss is non uncommon. In one survey 15 % of patients of NIHL had asymmetrical hearing loss. This may be because of other ear diseases, asymmetrical noise exposure or sometimes non interpretable [ 62 ] . Pure tone audiology forms the footing of diagnosing and for compensation intents in NIHL. International standard 1999 ( ISO ) , has formulated guidelines for finding whether an audiogram conforms to the parametric quantities of NIHL. Electric response audiology may be of great aid in observing overdone hearing loss in compensatory claims. All other supra- threshold trials and speech audiology in NIHL would demo characteristics of cochlear hearing loss.Otoacoustic Emission ( OAE ) in NIHLThe measuring Otoacoustic emanation ( OAE ) has become a simpler, non-invasive and nonsubjective tool to mensurate OHCs map, the primary mark cell in NIHL. Both TAOAE and DPOAE have been studied in acoustic injury and NIHL. Some studies suggest that the amplitude of OAE lessenings even before there is noticeable pure tone threshold displacement in noise injury [ 63 ] . Early NIHL is characterized by unnatural OAE constellation corroborating some cochlear disfunction or harm with normal or near normal pure tone audiograms [ 64 ] . This has an of import bearing in the early diagnosing of NIHL and can even be utilized to observe single susceptibleness to NIHL [ 65 ] . The multiple advantages of OAEs are that they are extremely sensitive, site specific, nonsubjective and speedy to analyze and hence are ideal tools for supervising NIHL. DPOAEs are particularly well-suited for monitoring as the frequence scope of analysis extends beyond 8 KHz, which is good beyond the 3-6 KHZ scope affected by NIHL. Therefore with a good D P gm one can confidently predict whether the hearing loss is due to resound exposure or non [ 66 ] ( Fig. 10.14 & A ; 10.15 ) . OAE analysis is a really sensitive index for presence or absence of hearing over 35-40 dubniums and can be a really helpful testing tool for observing NIHL and exaggerated hearing loss.Newer Research Trends in NIHLSome exciting research trends that offer more insight into basic pathophysiology of NIHL and possible development of newer curative schemes are: ( a ) Hair cell regeneration ( B ) Genetic and molecular footing for NIHL ( degree Celsius ) † Toughening † or â€Å" preparation † protocols by pre-exposure to low strength sounds anterior to exposure to high strength noise. ( vitamin D ) Antioxidant therapy for NIHL and acoustic injury It is now an established fact that avian hair cells can renew undermentioned harm due to resound and ototoxic drugs [ 67 ] . Similar surveies on neonatal biddies have shown that hair cell regeneration occurs from back uping cells under the influence of acoustic harm [ 68 ] . A more recent mammalian survey has shown the ability of mammalian cochlea to renew hair cells following ototoxic harm [ 69 ] . The function of growing factors is being evaluated in act uponing this regeneration [ 70 ] .Recent research besides demonstrated the functional capableness of such regeneration [ 71 ] . Further research in this way appears rather promising and offers a possible healing intervention of noise and drug induced hearing loss. Antioxidants in the intervention of noise injury have been used with good consequences in the ague puting [ 22, 72, 73 ] . Clinical tests to formalize their usage are awaited. The function of â€Å" conditioning † or ‘toughening † of the ear by anterior exposure to low strength noise before exposure to damaging noise has been tried and carnal theoretical accounts have shown singular protection of interior ear hair cells, presumptively by increasing anti-oxidant degrees [ 74 ] . Though they have shown great promise in inventing newer remedy and preventative protocols against NIHL, they have limited practical applications at nowadays. Attempts are on to happen out if there are familial factors in the susceptibleness to NIHL. It has been seen that some strains of inbred mice are more susceptible to NIHL than others. Scientists are seeking to insulate a NIHL cistron to a chromosomal venue. Recently a recessionary cistron ( ALI ) that is responsible for premature age-related hearing loss has been shown to be related to inordinate susceptibleness to NIHL [ 75 ] . If such familial linkage can be established in human existences it opens up new views for testing for susceptibleness for NIHL and possible intervention of NIHL.Non Auditory Effects of NoiseA big figure of non- audile effects of NIHL that adversely affect the wellness of an person have been described. Important nonspecific effects of NIHL are intervention with communicating, hapless efficiency and work end product, crossness and irritation, perturbation of slumber and remainder and early fatigability. Some major systemic unwellnesss like high blood pressure, peptic ulcers, emotional agitation and mental unwellnesss have associated with NIHL. However, there is limited grounds to back up these associations.Treatment of NIHLAs is true for all types of sensorineural hearing losingss, NIHL unluckily can non be cured but it likely is the individual largest cause of preventable hearing loss all over the universe. The pronouncement â€Å" Prevention is better than remedy † holds true in NIHL and preventative steps and personal hearing defenders are discussed later. As with any disease, where the pathogenesis is multifactorial, multiple intervention modes have been tried for NIHL with varying and at times conflicting consequences. Most intercessions would look to work for acute jobs like acute acoustic injury and NITTS where published literature abounds. However, the job is compounded by the greatly varied rates of self-generated declaration. The function of hyperbaric O therapy ( HBOT ) has been evaluated and reported of benefit if commenced early [ 76 ] . The function of HBOT in acute acoustic injury is better studied and recommended where executable [ 77 ] . Some studies of acoustic injury being treated with a mixture of 10 % carbondioxide and 90 % O ( Carbogen ) are available in the literature. It is suggested that the vasodilatory consequence of carbogen prevents or reduces noise induced PTS following acoustic injuries [ 78 ] . The writers in their personal experience of handling acute acoustic injury with carbogen have found it utile in re stricting the hearing loss. The function of accessory Vit E with Carbogen has shown to hold benefit in NITTS [ 73 ] . The fact that Magnesium can perforate the hematocochlear barrier and its comparative deficiency of side effects have led to research in istusease for acute acoustic injury with encouraging consequences [ 79 ] . The function of steroids have been investigated in NIHL besides. As with the intervention of sudden SNHL, intratympanic steroids appear to cut down outer hair snake pit loss in rats exposed to acute noise [ 80 ] . There is deficiency of conclusive grounds in the clinical use of intratympanic steroids though a recent study has shown good consequences [ 81 ] . Recent research has hovered in researching anti-oxidants to cut down the abuse to cochlea with promoting carnal surveies [ 72 ] . For more lasting threshold jobs, most intercessions do non demo any benefit and rehabilitation with hearing AIDSs is an first-class option in bettering the communicating position of people enduring from NIHL. Advanced digital and programmable hearing AIDSs offer really good quality of hearing betterment and should be liberally prescribed.NIHL- Magnitude of job in developing statesNoise pollution is a planetary job of great magnitude and NIHL is possibly the individual largest cause of preventable hearing loss. In developed states it is the biggest compensatable occupational jeopardy and histories for about one tierce of all individuals enduring from hearing damage. Most of the developed states are bit by bit conveying noise under control. However in developing states the industrial and urban societal noise is on the rise and is doing serious environmental noise pollution. The hazard of NIHL from societal noise is increasing twenty-four hours by twenty-four hours for immature people i n most underdeveloped states. This is due to rapid industrialisation, unchecked proliferation of cars particularly two Wheelers and autorickshaws with two shot engines. In many developing states there is a deficiency of statute law against noise pollution and, when nowadays, these Torahs are ill implemented. Therefore bar of occupational and environmental noise pollution must take top precedence in public wellness direction. Some of the studies from developing states of South Asia and South East Asia sing urban societal noise and its deductions are dismaying [ 82 ] . In Pakistan unchecked urbanisation has increased the noise degrees in metropoliss like Karachi, Lahore and Faisalabad. Road traffic particularly autorickshaws which do non hold silencers produce noise degrees up to 100 -110 dubnium. The mean ambient noise degree in the busy streets of Karachi was found to be above 90 dubnium. There is a high incidence of NIHL in the major industries of Pakistan particularly textile Millss and sheet metal industries. Though statute law against noise pollution and hearing preservation exists, it is ill implemented. In India thorough statute law for allowable ambient noise degrees in assorted countries, work topographic point noise criterions and noise criterions for motor vehicles exist but there is serious deficiency of execution [ Tables 10.25, 10.26, 10.27 ] . Traffic noise in busy intersections of larger metropoliss frequently reaches 100 dubnium. There is increasing incidence of NIHL in a big population that is at hazard. In a survey carried out in the metropolis of Pune in 2000 by the Department of ENT, Armed Forces Medical College revealed a traffic noise between 87-97 dubnium in busy intersections of the metropolis [ 83 ] . An audiometric study carried out by Singh VK, Mehta AK of 421 traffic police officers the metropolis of Pune, showed that 81.3 % of them showed some grade of NIHL and badness of NIHL increased linearly with length of service. In the same survey 225 autorikshaw drivers who are routinely exposed to loud traffic noise were besides audiometrically reviewed and 81.1 % of them were found to hold NIHL [ 84 ] . In a similar survey conducted on traffic police officers in 2000, 74.3 % of 207 police officers were found to hold NIHL of changing grades [ 83 ] . Thus sociacusis is going a major job in developing states and the job needs to be tackled on war terms.Damage hazard standardsHazard of NIHL has been found to hold a definite relationship between strength of sound and continuance of exposure. Burns and Robinson [ 86 ] brought forth the construct of equal energy which suggests that lasting harm to hearing is related to entire sound energy which is merchandise of strength of sound in assumed name and continuance of exposure. They assumed that equal sum of energy causes equal hearing loss and concluded after extended research that the equal energy construct could be applied to finding day-to-day safe degrees of strength and exposure continuance to assorted noises. This translates into 8 hours day-to-day exposure to 90dB ambient noise and for every addit ion of 3 dubnium, the continuance of exposure is halved. For e.g. a 93 dubnium noise degree will allow merely 4 hours of exposure. This is the recognized norm in most European states. There is a suggestion that if the noise exposure is intermittent as in most industries, the ear has clip to retrieve from noise injury and hence a 4 dubnium halving and doubling is more suited [ 11 ] . In the United States of America a 5 dubnium halving and doubling has been suggested by CHABA ( Committee on hearing, Bioacoustics and Biomechanics ) in mid 60 ‘s. OSHA ( US occupational safety and hearing criterions ) permits a 5 dubnium halving and doubling of exposure and the criterion is known as LOSHA and the European criterion of 3 dubnium doubling and halving is known as Leq ( Table 10.28 ) . 90dBA has been universally accepted as safe strength of exposure up to 8 hours but there is instance for cut downing this bound to 85 dubnium and to originate hearing preservation programme from 85 assum ed names flat [ 85 ] . These criterions can merely be adapted for steady province uninterrupted noise. Appropriate criterions for impact noise are non universally available.Hearing preservation ProgrammeNoise is the individual largest cause of preventable hearing loss and with of all time increasing degrees of noise in all walks of life NIHL has attained a planetary importance. NIHL can non be cured with the current province of medical cognition. However it can be reduced and minimized, if non wholly prevented, by effectual hearing preservation programme. An effectual hearing preservation programme is a multi-disciplinary attempt necessitating enforceable statute law from the authoritiess, managerial engagement, technology and medical engagement. Alberti has suggested an ideal hearing preservation programme for occupational hearing loss that has eight stages [ 2 ] : ( a ) Noise jeopardy designation ( B ) Technology controls ( degree Celsius ) Personal hearing protection ( vitamin D ) Monitoring audiometry ( vitamin E ) Record maintaining ( degree Fahrenheit ) Health instruction ( g ) Enforcement ( H ) Programme rating Hazardous noise degrees in the industry and work topographic point can be identified with preciseness sound degree metres. Periodic sound degree monitoring over moderately long periods to place potentially risky work topographic point environment and effectual technology controls to cut down the degree of noise by alteration in the engineering or replacing or redesigning of machinery and other technology intercessions to cut down the noise degrees. Administrative controls like rigorous enforcement of prescribed clip of exposure depending on the sound degrees, proviso of less noisy work environment and effectual and periodic wellness instruction of workers sing bar of NIHL. However personal hearing defenders are most critical for bar of NIHL. A big assortment of personal hearing defenders like ear stoppers, ear muffs and canal caps are available with changing grades of fading. The most of import facet of personal hearing defenders is the regularity of usage. Unless the workers use the m on a regular basis, they will be of no usage. Therefore, it is most indispensable to educate the workers. The most of import facet of taking a hearing defender device is worker comfort and the assurance of the worker utilizing it [ 88, 89 ] . The usage of single audiodosimeters are besides of importance in particular fortunes when it is required to measure the cumulative noise exposure of a individual exposed noise. The logging dosemeter integrates sound force per unit area over clip and a day-to-day noise degree with regard to current 90 dB/8hours per twenty-four hours exposure [ 14 ] . Hearing showing is besides a really of import measure in bar of occupational hearing loss. The map of hearing showing is to place those workers with hearing loss, place those whose hearing shows declining and to measure the effectivity of hearing testing programme [ 2 ] . Therefore periodic audiometric appraisal of workers at hazard is of paramount importance for early sensing of NIHL. Any alteration of 10 dubnium or greater in any frequence or an mean alteration of 10 dubnium or more in all frequences warrants a audience with ENT man for farther rating. The importance of record maintaining and periodic regular wellness instruction of workers about the hurtful effects of noise and utilize personal hearing defenders can non be ignored in any hearing preservation programme. In developing states, bar of NIHL must be taken as a serious public wellness job and appropriate stairss demands to be taken on a precedence footing at the national degree. A WHO study suggests following steps in this respect [ 86 ] : ( a ) National programme for bar of noise-induced hearing loss should be established in all states and integrated with primary wellness attention. This should include environmental and medical surveillance, noise decrease, effectual statute law, review, enforcement, wellness publicity and instruction, hearing preservation, compensation and preparation. ( B ) Prevention of NIHL must be appropriate, equal, acceptable and low-cost. ( degree Celsius ) Most of the population in developing states is nescient of the jeopardies of inordinate noise exposure. Awareness must be increased about the harmful effects of noise and about its bar and control of NIHL ( vitamin D ) There is an acute deficit of dependable epidemiological informations on prevalence, hazard factors and costs of NIHL from developing states. There is an pressing demand of structured and controlled surveies in this respect. ( vitamin E ) Research needs to be focused on pathophysiology, proficient steps for noise decrease, bettering personal hearing defenders and low cost medicines for bar ( degree Fahrenheit ) Communication and coaction should be strengthened between developed and developing states to ease research and development in this field.DecisionsWithout uncertainty NIHL is the individual most of import cause for preventable hearing loss in this universe today. This job of noise pollution is turning and is presuming epidemic proportions in many developing states. It is to be appreciated that it is practically impossible to cut down noise degrees in industry and in our metropoliss to safe adequate degrees for infinite exposure. Educating people about inauspicious effects of noise and its bar and the usage of personal hearing protective devices are the major schemes against NIHL. There is an pressing demand to rush research on the cardinal mechanisms involved in NIHL so that preventative and healing steps to cut down or extenuate the lasting hearing harm due noise are evolved.

Equus: Analysis Scenes 20 & 21

Equus scene 20 Introduction: First we will summarize the scene, after that we will analyze the following features. (we will be discussing scene 20 first). Summary: Dysart and Alan are in the office of Dysart, however they are pretending to be at the stables. Dysart asks questions to Alan and Alan answers all of them. Alan tells about his ritual in the stable. He does this ritual every time before he rides a horse. In this ritual he gives the horse sandals and the ‘’Chinkle-chankle’’. Later they go to the place of Ha Ha, which is a big field Alan describes to be full of mist and covered with nettles.Setting: The place is actually in Dysart’s office but they pretend to be in the stable. This is at night or late in the evening, which we can know because Dysart says: ‘’Dalton may still be awake’’ and because Alan says: ‘’he doesn’t like it so late’’. In this sentence he refers to ‘he†™ as Nugget the horse and ‘it’ as the ‘’Chinkle-chankle’’. The stable Alan talks about is home to a couple of horses, including Nugget. Plot development: This scene was actually very predictable. During the previous scene, so scene 19, the events in scene 20 were foreshadowed.In scene 19 Dysart asked many questions to Alan about his rituals with the horses. In this scene Dysart goes on with questioning and asks Alan to do the rituals that he told Dysart about in the previous scene. Alan accepted this and that is why they pretend to be at the stable. This scene builds up tension and again foreshadows what will happen in the next scene, because it has an open end. The next scene will probably be about the rituals too Character development: Alan is different in this scene. In the previous scenes, he did not like to give answers to Dysart’s questions.He wanted to ask him questions in return or he used tools such as the tape recorder. In t his scene Alan answers all of Dysart’s questions without being ashamed, without using tools and without playing games. Next to that, he seems to follow all of Dysart’s instructions without any hesitation. He is not the only character who has developed. Dysart has also developed. In the previous scenes he was someone who did not like his job. He said that he did the job because he had to. In this scene, Dysart seems very interested and wants to know more about Alan.He still is careful with Alan, but he has to watch out because he could become too curious and make actions without thinking about them. Themes: The theme of this scene is religion, because Alan tells more about his god equus. He tells us about the rituals which he has to do in order to ride on Equus. Language: The only striking about the language is that Alan uses the word â€Å"Ha Ha† to describe a place. Alan mysteriously tells Dysart: â€Å"It’s his place of Ha Ha†. Dysart does not as k for more information about this place, so we don’t get to know what happens there†¦ yet.Symbolism: The sandals in the scene are used as a symbol. He gives the sandals to the horse and he kisses them before he does that. There can be two views however. One of them is religious. Alan gives Nugget the sandals. Alan is a boy who knows a lot about the bible so he also knew that Jesus always wore sandals. In this way, Alan symbolizes Jesus. He sees the horse as Jesus. Therefore he gives the horse the sandals to wear, just like Jesus. The other view however is simply to reduce the noise that the horse makes. It is night and Alan wants to do his rituals and ride on the horse.This will make a lot of noise. So in order to prevent people from noticing this or prevent to wake them up, he gives sandals to the horse. Equus scene 21 Summary: Alan and Dysart move on to the huge field. Alan goes on with his rituals. He completely undresses in front of the horse. Next to that he gets hi s ‘’Manbit’’. It is a sacred stick on which he bites. After that he touches the horse everywhere; On its belly, ribs, flank, eyes etc. After that Alan offers Nugget some sugar, in order to take his sins away. Then he mounts the horse and he says that it hurts because of little knives in his skin.Alan calls himself ‘’The king’’ and says that only he can ride Equus, the mightiest of horses. The king (Alan) tramples all of his foes and after that he says: ‘’Equus I love you’’ and ‘’Make us one person! ’’. Finally he drops of the horse to the ground and ends with: ‘’Amen’’. Setting: Alan and Dysart are still in the office of Dysart, however they are still pretending as if they weren’t. Now they pretend to have walked to the huge field. This huge field is full of mist. They went from the stable to the field so we can assume that it is still dark ou tside.We can also assume that it is night because Alan told us in the previous scenes that he does his rituals during the night. It probably is not very cold, otherwise Alan would have had difficulties to stay outside without his clothes. There is also a gate and a tree in the field. We know this because Alan mentioned it. Plot development: This scene is in chronological order with the previous scene. So it was predictable that Alan would go on with his ritual. But the ritual itself was very surprising. It turned from a simple ritual to a very extreme one.We can see that some of these rituals come from Christianity. Alan bows for his god Equus and he talks about sins. The tension from the previous scene gets to its climax where Alan has an intense moment riding Nugget. After that, the action drops significantly when Alan says: â€Å"Amen†. Character development: Alan was already excited during the previous scene, but we have not seen him this excited yet. There is no sign lef t of the shame that Alan had previously. He reveals everything. In the previous scene he just demonstrated a part of his rituals, but now he has shown the extremes of his ritual.He stands firmly behind his thoughts and he shows his love towards his god, Equus. It seems as if he has turned into a radical believer of his own religion. Dysart is still very curious and does not show any signs of feeling weird. He acts as if everything is normal, as if he is a child wanting to know more about football. From all the sentences that Dysart says, only 2 do not end with a question mark. This shows that Dysart is very curious. Theme: The themes of scene 21 are religion and normality. In this scene we learn a lot about the rituals and the religion of Alan.That is why one of the themes is religion. The rituals can be seen as weird. It challenges our sense of what is normal and what is not. With the help of this scene the writer wants to standardize our view on the strange. That is why the second theme of scene 21 is normality. Language: Alan’s use of the language is very striking. He does not use colloquialism. Instead he uses very holy and sacred words. He has created a lot of names for his religion. When Dysart asks him about who his enemies are, Alan gives a lot of new names. He tells us that he is the king and therefore he talks like a king.He also uses heroic language such as: ‘’Equus the Mighty rose against all! ’’ and ‘’His enemies scatter, his enemies fall! ’’. Symbolism: The sugar that Alan gives to the horse is a symbol that is linked to Christianity. By giving the sugar, he offers up his sins to Equus. So the sugar stands for sins. He says that this is his last supper, which refers to the last supper of Jesus. Conclusion: Finally, we could say that scene 20 and 21 are quite strange scenes. We discover what the real Alan is like and we get to understand him better. Especially scene 21 seems to be a very important scene for the whole play,

The structure of UK tour operations market Essay Example

The structure of UK tour operations market Essay Example The structure of UK tour operations market Essay The structure of UK tour operations market Essay 1.0 Introduction 1.1 Terms of reference This report is the result of an investigation on the UK outbound tour operating market for Cole Venture Capital. The objective of this report is to give a clearer understanding of the structure of UK tour operations market and give recommendations on whether investment in such industry will be profitable for Cole Venture Capital. 2.0 Historical Review 2.1 Developments 1945-1960 Overseas travelling increased after World War Two. This was due to social, economical and technological improvements of their respective environment. The first air tour was credited to Vladmir Raitz whose Horizon Holidays bought surplus Douglas Dakota troop carrying aircraft from the army to carry 32 holiday makers on a trip to Corsica in 1950 (Yale 1995). The availability of cheap transport plus the lower accommodation and food costs in Spain and other Mediterranean countries made foreign holidays affordable to a generation emerging from war-time austerity and looking to enjoy the social equality and economic prosperity promised by governments of the era (Holloway 2002). 2.1.1 Development 1960s to 1980s The removal of visa requirements and the gradual easing of exchange controls encouraged further growth of foreign travel. The demand for travelling was largely met through inclusive tours rather than independent travel. This was because British people liked security of booking holidays from tour operators because the tour operators reduced the fear of the three Fs- flying, foreigners and foreign food (Yale 1995). Technological development continued to shape the tourism business. The introduction of Boeing 747 making it possible to travel in less time, made travelling more appealing (Yale 1995). Other factors, which influenced this growth, were the tour operators three main competitive advantages, which are low price due to bulk purchase of flights and hotels, quality assurance of well-known brand, and convenience booking through a local travel agent (Sharpley 2002). 2.1.2 Major developments 1980s to 2000 With the emergence of Thompson (Now TUI UK) as market leader, companies were adopting price led competitive strategies as consumers were expecting lower price. Thompson used its financial strength to pursue a strategy to gain market shares through cost leadership (Porter 1980 in Sharpley 2002). One of Thompsons major strength is that it is a vertically integrated company. Thompson owns the charter airline Britannia as well as retail chain Lunn Polly. Vertical integration has given Thompson more bargaining power with suppliers (Sharpley 2002). As a result of Thompsons tactics smaller operators were driven out of business and the sector became very much oligopolistic (Holloway 2002). One of the major developments during this period was the horizontal integration between Thompson and Horizon. The merger confirmed Thompson as the market leader, however the price wars have undermined the profitability of the whole sector (Yale 1995). The collapse of International Leisure Group (ILG) the second largest tour operator in 1991 signalled the full impact of the cutthroat nature of the industry (Yale 1995). By the mid 1990s a massive buying spree by Thompson and its rivals has changed the industry dramatically. The top four operators have spent millions buying other smaller tour operators and travel agents in the rush for dominance in the UK market. It all started with the Monopolies and Mergers Commission After several years of investigation, the UK Governments Monopolies and Mergers Commission announced at the start of 1998 that the foreign package holiday market was broadly competitive and served the interests of the customer well (Sharpley 2002). The report did impose three significant rulings on the sector: 2.1.3 Travel agents could no longer make discounts on the price of holidays conditional on the purchase of their preferred travel insurance scheme 2.1.4 Tour operators could no longer impose conditions on travel agents banning them from offering bigger discounts on other companies products 2.1.5 The big integrated companies now had to display their ownership links on the inside and outside of their agency shops and on brochures The MMC said the big operators had to make their ownership links more transparent. For example, Thomson Travel Group had to ensure that its travel agency chain Lunn Poly clearly stated its ownership links in its high street shops. The ruling of MMC meant the big companies were going ahead with more acquisitions (Holloway 2002: 227-231) 3.0Â  Structure of the travel and tourism industry 3.1 Structure The tour operating sector in the UK travel industry is dominated by the four big players- Airtours PLC, Thompson Travel Group, Thomas Cook and First Choice Holidays PLC. Between them they control 60% of the market (Sharpley 2002). To be a tour operator a licence (ATOL) is needed from the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA). An operator buys aircraft seats, hotel accommodation and other services or products required to make up a package holiday and sells them to the general public, traditionally through the travel agent but nowadays also directly to the public by various means including the internet. They make these purchases off principals in bulk, which generates economies of scale, thus making savings, which can be passed on, to the customer (Holloway 2002). The essential link in the process of selling holiday products is the brochure, which communicates the product to the customer, but as mentioned the Internet is becoming increasingly important. The barriers to entry are low, however it is very hard to compete with big tour operators. To survive it is essential to concentrate on a niche market or buy market share through integration (Sharpley 2002). The current structure of UK tour operating as mentioned by Sharpley (2002) is characterised by: 3.1.1 An elite group of about 10 vertically and horizontally integrated tour operators who collectively account 70 percent of the air holiday market. This group includes big players like Airtours and Thompson who are mass tourism operators. 3.1.2 A central group of established medium sized operators who have a strong niche market presence. They carry 100,000 to 300,000 passengers a year, however in recent years these companies have been taken over by big players for example Direct Holidays is now part of Airtours. 3.1.3 A very large number of small but specialised operators who carry less than 100,000 passengers a year. These operators focus on specific markets or destination. (Sharpley 2002:76). 3.2 Integration in tour operating In November 1996 Thomson and Airtours were referred to the Mergers and Monopolies Commission as part of an investigation covering the entire holiday industry. The investigation focused on vertical integration and whether travel agents sell their own holidays in preference to those of other operators or control their domination of the package holiday industry to control supply and fix prices. A further issue that was considered was brochure racking and switch selling, that is whether the larger travel agents such as Lunn Poly were giving preference to their own parent company when displaying brochures and selling holidays (Hudson et al 2001). Smaller tour operators were complaining that they were not getting a fair deal at the travel agents who were owned or linked to the larger operators. Integration both vertical and horizontal became more common with big tour operators after the Monopolies and Mergers Commission investigation into the travel industry. The outcome of the enquiry, which was announced in December 1997, effectively gave a green light to the big operators to go on their spending spree (Holloway 2002). 3.2.1 Cases of horizontal integration Horizontal integration is acquiring a company across the same level of chain distribution; the first focus of the major operators was on buying up other tour operators. Thomson bought smaller but profitable companies such as upmarket tour operator Simply Travel and Magic Travel Group. Airtours acquired companies such as Panorama Holidays while First Choice bought up medium-sized rival Unijet and long-haul specialist Hayes and Jarvis. Meanwhile, Thomas Cook bought Flying Colours Leisure Group, which operates Club 18-30 and Sunset Holidays and merged with Carlson Leisure Group (Sharpley 2002). After acquiring smaller tour operators the attention turned to securing distribution for the tour operators new, enlarged portfolio. Thomson acquired smaller, regional travel agent chains such as Scottish travel agency chain Sibbald Travel and South Wales chain The Travel House. Airtours bought up Travelworld and did a deal with an independent travel agency chain, Advantage Travel Centres, to sell its holidays through 350 of their branches. Thomas Cook literally doubled its travel agency chain overnight when it merged with Carlson Leisure Group and took over the Carlson Worldchoice (Holloway 2002). 3.2.2 Cases of Vertical integration Vertical integration is the common ownership of tour operator, airline and travel agent (or any two of these) it is a significant feature among the leading tour operators and travel agents and has increased in recent years. Prior to the late 1980s only Thompson among todays leading companies had been fully vertically integrated-with the purchase of its airline Britannia in 1965 and Lunn Poly in 1972 (Yale 1995:24-26). Among the leading organizations, the vertical integration picture is set out in appendix 1. 3.2.3 Impacts of horizontal and vertical integration on smaller independent operators In theory horizontal integration leads to economies of scale, this means that due to bulk purchases and shared marketing cost saving techniques are utilised. The cost savings enables tour operators to become more competitive, allowing it to develop better range of products at a cheaper rate (Yale 1995). Big tour operators have used integration as means of competitive strategy to gain greater immediate market shares as mentioned earlier in the report (See part 2.1.2 Thompson merger with Horizon). The vertically integrated groups now supply a large proportion of the tourism market. Vertically integrated operators have the market power to put competitors (especially smaller independent ones) at a disadvantage, for example in de racking or threatening to de rack their brochures in an attempt to negotiate larger commissions, by pressurising operators not to supply independent travel agents on better terms, or by pushing their own holidays through in house incentive schemes (Yale 1995). In many industries it is the role of small or medium size enterprises to develop new niche market segments, which if successful are taken over by larger organisations. This has certainly been the case in tour operating as the major groups have sought to diversify into higher yield specialist markets. In a report by Mintel (2001) the Association of Independent Tour Operators ruefully reflect that many of their former members are now part of larger vertically integrated groups. 3.2.4 Independent tour operator survival The keys to success are considered to be specialisation and exclusivity, with distinguishable niche products, and tailored personal service. These holidays are generally sold through direct sell advertising in newspapers and magazines, with high levels of repeat business and recommendation. However, AITO has also formed an alliance with independent retail agents under the banner of CARTA the Campaign for Real Travel Agents- who position themselves as genuine travel consultants as opposed to the holiday shops of the major groups. The big threat to the independents from the consolidation of tour operating is the fight for seat allocations. 4.0 Market Sizing Trends Despite the impact of the tragic events of 11th September 2001 on the outbound tourism market, expenditure overseas by UK residents (excluding fares), the number of UK residents visits overseas, and the number of nights spent overseas, all increased in 2001. The value of the outbound market including fares decreased in 2001, reflecting price pressure on fares as a result of increased competition (see appendix 2). This was accentuated by the development of low-cost airlines and the impact of 11th September. Prior to 11th September, the market was growing as it had since the Gulf War and the recession in 1991 (Keynote Travel Agents Overseas Tour Operators 2002). Keynote (2002) has stated that growth of outbound tourism from the UK has been greater than the world average during the 1990s. This is because Britons are getting better off. Many who could not previously afford overseas holiday can now do so. Also airfares are becoming less expensive, due mainly to competition and bigger airlines. There are also many other countries that are developing their tourist industry and the choice of where to go is getting bigger every year. Other trends included different channels of distribution such as the Internet and other forms of new media and digital technology.

Poems Read at Inauguration Ceremonies for US Presidents

Poems Read at Inauguration Ceremonies for US Presidents Poetry seems so natural an inclusion in public ceremony that you might be surprised to learn that it was nearly 200 years after the very first Presidential oath of office was taken by George Washington before a poet was included in the official inauguration proceedings. There are a couple of 19th-century poems historically associated with Presidential inaugurations in the archives of the Library of Congress, but neither was actually read during the swearing-in ceremony: â€Å"An Ode in Honor of the Inauguration of Buchanan Breckinridge, President and Vice President of the United States† by Col W. Emmons, printed on broadside in 1857.â€Å"An Inaugural Poem, Dedicated to Abraham Lincoln, of Illinois, and Andrew Johnson, of Tennessee,† from The Chronicle Junior, an inauguration program that was actually printed on a press in a wagon during Lincoln’s inaugural parade in 1865. The Introduction of Poetry in the Presidential Inauguration Robert Frost was the first poet invited to be part of the official swearing-in of an American president when John F. Kennedy took office in 1961. Frost actually wrote a new poem for the occasion, a fact that seems slightly odd considering his stated aversion to writing poems on commission. It was a not-terribly-good poem called â€Å"Dedication† that he intended as a preface to the older poem Kennedy had originally requested, but on Inauguration Day, circumstances intervened – the glare of bright sunlight off new snow, his faint typescript and the wind ruffling his pages and his white hair made it impossible for Frost to read the new poem, so he gave up the attempt and went directly into reciting Kennedy’s request without the preamble. â€Å"The Gift Outright† outlines the story of American independence in its 16 lines, in a triumphant, patriotic tone that brings to mind the 19th-century doctrine of manifest destiny and domination of the continent. As usual, Frost’s poem is aimed at a target less conventional than it first appears. â€Å"The land was ours before we were the land’s,† but we became Americans not by conquering this place, but by surrendering to it. We ourselves, the people of America, are the gift of the poem’s title, and â€Å"The deed of gift was many deeds of war.† At Kennedy’s request, Frost changed one word in the last line of the poem, to strengthen the certainty of its prediction for America’s future â€Å"Such as she was, such as she would become† became â€Å"Such as she was, such as she will become.† You can watch NBC News coverage of the entire 1961 inauguration ceremony at Hulu.com  if you’re willing to sit through ads inserted at 7- to 10-minute intervals in the hour-long video – Frost’s recitation is in the middle, immediately before Kennedy’s oath of office. The next president who included a poet in the proceedings surrounding his inauguration was Jimmy Carter in 1977, but the poem didn’t make it into the actual swearing-in ceremony. James Dickey read his poem â€Å"The Strength of Fields† at the Kennedy Center gala after Carter’s inauguration. It was another 16 years before poetry entered again into the official inauguration ceremony. That was in 1993, when Maya Angelou wrote and read â€Å"On the Pulse of Morning† for Bill Clinton’s first inauguration, her reading here on YouTube. Clinton also included a poet in his 1997 inaugural ceremony – Miller Williams contributed â€Å"Of History and Hope† that year. The tradition of presidential inauguration poems seems now to have settled in with Democratic presidents. Elizabeth Alexander was commissioned as inaugural poet for Barack Obama’s first inauguration in 2009. She wrote â€Å"Praise Song for the Day, Praise Song for Struggle† for the occasion, and her recitation is preserved on YouTube. For Obama’s second inauguration ceremony in 2013, Richard Blanco  was asked to submit three poems to the White House, which selected â€Å"One Today† for him to read following the President’s inaugural address. Blanco’s performance at the podium is also posted on YouTube.